#separator:tab #html:true #tags column:3 Intuition Effortless, immediate feeling/thought. u_1 Confirmation Bias Other people agreeing with an idea strengthen it in your mind, even if it's wrong. u_1 Hindsight Bias "The tendency to think you could have forseen an outcome before it happened (""Hindsight is 20/20."")" u_1 Hypothesis A testable prediction. u_1 Replication The ability to recreate the results of a study. u_1 Generalizability The ability to apply the results of a study to a larger group of people. u_1 Operational Definition Explicit definition of the research variables/procedures. u_1 Variables Features of the study that can change. u_1 Experiment Has 2 types of variables, all aspects other than those must be carefully planned for. u_1 Independent Variable The variable in an experiment that the experimenter manipulates. u_1 Dependent Variable The variable in an experiment that is measured. u_1 Correlational Research Researching the relationship between two things you cannot control. u_1 Descriptive Research Type of research that describes phenomena, cannot show cause and effect because it does not control all variables. u_1 Types of Descriptive Research Case Study, Survey, Naturalistic Observation, Correlational Research. u_1 Experimental Research Type of research done to show cause and effect, where experimenters manipulate and control variables. u_1 Population All of the people your study could possibly apply to. u_1 Sample A group you are conducting the study on. u_1 Representative Sample A sample that accurately represents the population. u_1 Sample Bias Bias that comes from not using good sampling techniques, such as nonrandom selection. u_1 Naturalistic Observation Observing behavior in natural situations without interfering. u_1 Hawthorne Effect The presence of a researcher can affect behavior of participants. u_1 Case Study Study of a single case/person in depth. u_1 Survey Method of obtaining self-reported info. u_1 Wording Effect The wording of questions may sway answers. u_1 Social Desirability Effect People may answer questions based on what they think is socially acceptable. u_1 Correlation Shows that two variables have a positive or negative relationship. (not cause/effect) u_1 Quasi-Experiment Experiment but the participants aren't randomly assigned. u_1 Correlation Coefficient A correlation coefficient is a value that shows how strong a correlation is between two variables and what direction that correlation is. +1.0 is strongest positive, -1.0 is strongest negative, 0 is no correlation. u_1 Confounding Variables Variables linked in a way that makes it difficult to sort out effects. u_1 Experimenter Bias Researcher's expectations influence results. u_1 Ethical Requirements u_1 Animal Ethics
Infection, illness, and pain must be minimized.
u_1 Psychology Science of behavior and mental processes u_1 Conscious Mind Our awareness of ourselves and our environment. u_1 Unconscious Mind Information processing of which we are unaware. u_1 Cognition All the mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. u_1 Nature vs Nuture Is behavior because of genes or environment? u_1 Neuroscience Study of the brain and its biological processes (biological perspective.) u_1 Egyptians in Psychology Created first medical text which attempted to explain the brain and brain traumas u_1 Plato "Coined ""psyche,"" believed in the nature perspective" u_1 Aristotle "Plato's student, wrote ""Para Psych."" Believed in nurture perspective." u_1 Hippocrates Father of modern medicine, believed that changes in behavior stem from physical changes and the psyche was in the brain, not the heart. u_1 Galen "Believed that each person has 4 ""humors,"" imbalances cause behavior changes, and dominant humor determines personality." u_1 Rene Descartes "Coined ""I think, therefore I am"" (Nature perspective) Thought brain fluid flowed through the nerves." u_1 John Locke "Nurture perspective, coined ""tabula rasa"" (blank slate.)" u_1 Wilhelm Wundt Founder of psychology, opened first psych lab in 1879 (in Germany.) u_1 Structuralist Perspective Sought to identify the basic components of the mind, used introspection (not scientific!) u_1 Introspection Pseudoscientific method of training people to look inward and report their experiences as they did tasks. u_1 Edward Titchener Created Structuralism, Wundt's student. u_1 Functionalist Perspective Focused on the function of behavior. Used stream of consciousness, no longer used today. u_1 Stream of Consciousness Participants placed in situations and asked to explain their thought processes. u_1 William James Created Functionalism to challenge structuralism. u_1 G. Stanley Hall Studied under James and Wundt, educational psychologist, first president of the APA. u_1 Mary Whitton Calkins Studied under William James, first female president of the APA. u_1 Behavioral Perspective Focus on outward behavior we can see and test, specifically how we are conditioned to certain behaviors. u_1 Conditioning Learning u_1 Ivan Pavlov Studied classical conditioning. u_1 John B. Watson "Continued Pavlov's work, conditioned baby to fear white furry objects. Coined the term ""behaviorism.""" u_1 BF Skinner Studied operant conditioning. u_1 Albert Bandura Behaviorist/cognitive psychologist. u_1 Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective Focuses on how our unconscious thoughts and conflicts influence behavior that leads to disorders, very subjective. u_1 Humanistic Perspective "Believe in working to reach your full potential through ""self-actualization.""" u_1 Biological Perspective (Neuroscience) Looks for changes in the brain, including neurotransmitters and hormones, to explain behavior. They also study genetic coding to explain certain phenomena. u_1 Evolutionary Perspective Focus on how humans were naturally selected for certain traits to increase fitness. u_1 Cognitive Perspective Studies mental processes, like how we think, learn, remember, and communicate. u_1 Socio-Cultural Perspective Studies how societal norms influence behavior, such as individualist vs collectivist societies. u_1 Basic Psychology "Focuses on defining and explaining theories, the main ""scientific"" part of psychology." u_1 Applied Psychology Attempts to apply theories from basic psychology to everyday situations. u_1 Biological Psychology (Neuroscience) Studies how the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and changes in brain structure affect behaviors. u_1 Developmental Psychology Studies how we change physically, socially, and cognitively from birth to death. u_1 Cognitive Psychology Studies mental processes such as thinking, learning, remembering, and communication. u_1 Personality Psychology Studies an individual's pattern of behavior, called traits using personality indexes/tests. u_1 Educational Psychology Focuses on what impacts student learning. u_1 Clinical Psychology Studies, diagnoses, and treats psychological disorders. u_1 Psychiatrist Medical doctor that can perscribe medication. u_1 Psychologist Has a PhD and can provide therapy, but NOT PERSCRIBE MEDICATION. u_1 Counseling Psychology Counsels people on everyday life issues. u_1 School Psychology Identify and help with learning, cognitive, and behavioral problems that impact learning. u_1 Sports Psychology Focuses on motivating athletes. u_1 Industrial-Organization Psychology Applies psychological concepts to optimize human behavior at work. u_1 Human Factors Psychology Studies the interaction of product design and humans. u_1 Psychometric Psychology Measures/quantifies human abilites, attitudes, and traits. u_1 Weaknesses of a Case Study
Case studies are highly subjective, subject to confirmation bias, and cannot show causation.
u_1 Strength of a Case Study Case studies are a realistic illustration of real life. u_1 Strengths of a Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic Observations are more realistic and allow researchers to study unethical situations.
u_1 Weaknesses of a Naturalistic Observation
They are subject to the Hawthorne Effect and are more qualitative than quantitative.
u_1 Random Selection Randomly selecting participants from a population. u_1 Random Assignment Randomly assigning participants to treatment/control group. u_1 Weaknesses of a Survey
They are self-reported, which means they are succeptible to the social desirability effect, the wording effect, and some might be unwilling to participate.
u_1 Strenghts of a Survey They are easy to collect/cheap, can reach large groups, and can see difficult to observe behaviors. u_1 Social Cognition Gathering, using, and interpreting information about the social world around us. u_2 Situtational Attributes Crediting a person's behavior to the situation they are in. u_2 Dispositional Attributes Crediting a person's behavior to their personal behavior. u_2 Actor/Observer Bias Seeing our own behavior as situational, and others' as dispositional. u_2 Fundamental Attribution Error Attributing someone's behavior to dispositional factors and failing to recognize the situation. u_2 Self-Serving Bias Attributing personal achievements to disposition, and failures to situation. u_2 Prejudice An unjustified attitude that we hold against others. u_2 Discrimination An unjustified action against others because of prejudice. u_2 Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) Routes Central Route and Peripheral Route u_2 Central Route to Persuasion When speaker uses facts/information to enable the listener to carefully process and change their opionion. u_2 Pros and Cons of the Central Route to Persuasion It's more likely to stick, but takes longer. u_2 Peripheral Route to Persuasion Quick judgments made on appearance/endorsements of respected people. u_2 Pros and Cons of the Peripheral Route to Persuasion It's fast and easy, but doesn't last long. u_2 Mere Exposure Effect The longer we are exposed to ideas, the more likely we are to accept them. u_2 Foot in the Door Phenomena Tendency of people to agree to a larger request if they accepted a smaller one. u_2 Lowballing "Being offered a ""deal,"" but then hit with hidden fees." u_2 Door in the Face Phenomena An outrageous request gets people to accept a smaller request. u_2 Reciprocity The tendency to return the favor of someone giving you a gift/donation. u_2 Phillip Zimbardo A scientist at Stanford University u_2 Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) An unethical Quasi-Experiment where young men roleplayed as guards and prisoners in a mock prison. u_2 Zimbardo's Hypothesis Assigning a role to play can influence your attitude. u_2 Flaws in the Stanford Prison Experiment "There was experimenter bias, coersion was used in order to keep ""prisoners"" from escaping, harm and discomfort were involved, there was no random selection (Quasi-Experiment,) and the guards experienced cognitive dissonance and changed their attitudes." u_2 Cognitive Dissonance An uncomfortable feeling where our attitudes don't align with our actions. u_2 Cognitive Dissonance Theory We change our attitudes to match our behaviors, because it reduces cognitive dissonance. u_2 Conformity Changing your behavior to match a group. u_2 Chameleon Effect Fitting in is preferable to sticking out. u_2 Mood Linkage Our moods change to match those of the people around us. u_2 Solomon Asch "Creator of the ""line"" study." u_2 The Line Study Participants were placed either in a group of actors or by themselves and asked to choose which of 3 lines matched another line. u_2 Results of the Line Study Participants in groups usually answered with the group. u_2 Conditions that Strengthen Conformity u_2 Normative Social Influences We want to gain approval or avoid dissaproval of society. u_2 Informational Social Influence We watch others if we are unsure on how to act. u_2 Compliance Adapting your actions to someone else's request. u_2 Stanley Milgram Shock Experiment (1962) "Participants (""teachers"") told to shock actors (""learners"") if they got questions wrong, 66% gave lethal dose when told to." u_2 Ethical Concerns of the Stanley Milgram Shock Experiment It could potentially give trauma and involved coersion. u_2 Design Flaws of the Stanley Milgram Shock Experiment The experiment only used men and requested working-class people who were used to recieving orders. u_2 Milgram's Hypothesis Only 2% would give lethal shock. u_2 Coditions that Lead to Obedience u_2 Social Facilitation If we are confident in tasks, we perform better in front of others. u_2 Social Impairment If we aren't confident in the task, we do worse in front of others. u_2 Deindividuation "We lose individuality and do weird things while in groups. (ex. ""the wave,"" mosh pits)" u_2 Social Loafing Tendency to slack off in a group. u_2 Group Polarization Tendency for beliefs to grow stronger while in a group of people with similar beliefs. u_2 Groupthink While excited to reach a decision, groups overlook problems to achieve group harmony. u_2 NASA Challenger Groupthink Scientists contracted by NASA were under pressure to make O-Rings for the space shuttle, and purposefully overlooked some details under time crunch. u_2 Minority Influence One person can sway a group to their beliefs. u_2 Stereotype A generalized belief about a group that leads to prejudice. u_2 Overt Prejudice Obvious prejudice, racial attitudes. u_2 Subtle Prejudice Implicit prejudice ingrained in society. u_2 Altruism An unselfish regard for the wellbeing of others. u_2 When does Altruism work? With norms (reciprocity/social responsibility) and the social exchange theory. u_2 Norms Implied or stated social rules. u_2 Social Exchange Theory We weigh the benefits and costs of all relationships. u_2 Reciprocity Norm The expectation that people that we help won't harm (or might help) us. u_2 Social Responsibility Norm We are expected to help those in need (injured, elderly, children, etc.) u_2 Conflict A percieved imcompatibility of actions/goals/ideas caused by Social Traps, Mirror Image Perceptions, and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies. u_2 Social Traps When parties in a conflict pursue their own interests they become caught in destructive behavior. u_2 Mirror Image Perceptions Your side is good, the other side is bad. This effect is seen by both parties. u_2 Contact Theory When groups contact, tension lowers. u_2 Jigsaw Classroom Students of different backgrounds cooperate on something to reduce conflict. This was used in integrating black and white kids into schools. u_2 Cooperation Multiple people work together on a superordinate goal. u_2 Superordinate Goal A shared goal that is more important than the differences in the people working on it. u_2 Conciliation Each side in a conflict realizes a mutual interest and intent to reduce problems. u_2 Ingroup Bias We're biased towards the groups we belong to and favor. u_2 Outgroup Bias We're biased against the groups we don't belong to and dislike. u_2 Ethnocentrism The belief that our culture or group is superior. u_2 Outgroup Homogeneity Belief that all members of another group are more alike than is true. u_2 Scapegoat Theory Looking for someone to blame for society's problems. u_2 Just World Phenomena The world is good, so people that do bad things end up getting what they deserve (karma.) u_2 Blame the Victim Dynamic The victim got what was coming to them. ex. blaming rape victim for drinking u_2 Other Race Effect We can recall the faces of our own race easier than that of other races. u_2 Aggression Any physical/verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy whether done reactively out of hostility or proactively as a calculated means to an end. u_2 Instrumental Aggression Aggression to satisfy a goal. u_2 Hostile Aggression When you feel pain/anger/frustration. u_2 Genetic Influences on Aggression Presence of the Y Chromosome and the MAOA gene. u_2 Neural Influences on Aggression The amygdala causes emotions/drive. Damage to the frontal lobe inhibits aggression. The hypothalamus controls hormones. u_2 Biochemical Influences on Aggression High levels of testosterone cause aggression, alcohol/drugs weaken inhibitions. u_2 Social Influences on Aggression Frustration-Aggression Principle, Ostracism, and Learned Behavior. u_2 Frustration-Aggression Principle Frustration causes anger, which causes aggression. u_2 Ostracism Aggression because of rejection. u_2 Bobo Doll Experiment Performed by Albert Bandura, it studied how children learn aggression. u_2 Observational Learning Theory We observe others be aggressive, we imitate that behavior. u_2 Aggression and Fathers Correlation between children without fathers present and raised aggression. u_2 Desensitization Violent media desensitizes people. u_2 Social Scripts Instructions on how to act which we can pick up from anyone. u_2 Aggression as Catharsis DISPROVEN, aggression releases frustration. u_2 Reuptake Any NTs left in the synaptic cleft are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron. u_3 Resting Potential In a neuron, when the inside of the cell body is negatively charged and the outside is potitively charged.
How to remember: NAKED. (NA on the outside, K on the inside) u_3 Franz Gall Creator of phrenology (very unscientific.) u_3 Depolarization (Part of action potential) When membrane threshold is flooded with positive potassium ions, depolarizing the cell (bringing it to the same charge as outside.) u_3 Action Potential When an excitatory neural message comes in and causes depolarization. u_3 Sensory Neurons (Afferent) Receive neural messages from receptor sites and send them to the brain. u_3 Motor Neurons (Efferent) Send messages from the brain to the muscles. u_3 Refactory Period (rest period) The cell has to rest before it can fire again. u_3 Excitatory An NT that is a sodium channel which causes depolarization. u_3 Interneurons Located in the spinal chord + brain, relay messages. u_3 Inhibitory Chloride channel NTs that cause hyperpolarization. u_3 Dendrites Receive NTs from the synaptic cleft. u_3 Threshold The electrical value that determines whether the neuron fires. u_3 Agonist Bind to receptors and act like NTs. Enhances neural activity, blocks reuptake. u_3 Antagonist Blocks NTs from being released, blocking cellular activity. u_3 Axon The conducting fiber between the cell body and the axon terminals. u_3 Synapse space between dendrites and axon terminals. u_3 Myelin Sheath Made of glial cells, provides food for the neuron. More myelin == faster message. u_3 Reflex Arc How simple reflexes are processed in the spinal chord (no brain.) u_3 Cell Body (Soma) Recieves the neural message after the dendrites. u_3 Reflex Requires no thinking, automatic. Survival mechanism. u_3 Sympathetic Nervous System Arouses and expends energy to help in stressful situations. Pupil dilation, heartbeat++, digestion--, blood sugar++, bladder contracts, sweat. u_3 Ovaries Female sex organs, produce estrogen. u_3 Testes Male sex organs, produce testosterone. u_3 Peripheral Nervous System Sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system from the rest of the body. u_3 Central Nervous System Brain and spinal chord. u_3 Parasympathetic Nervous System "The ""paramedics"" of the body, calms and conserves energy. Reverses sympathetic NS and brings you back to homeostasis." u_3 Pituitary Gland Controls endocrine system and hormone secretion. u_3 Endocrine System Hormones. u_3 Somatic Nervous System Skeletal nervous system which enables voluntary muscle control. u_3 Autonomic Nervous System Controls glands and muscles (contains parasymphathetic and sympathetic.) u_3 Adrenal Gland Releases stress hormones (cortisol, adrenaline.) u_3 Pancreas Produces insulin (regulates blood sugar metabolism.) u_3 Thyroid Gland Produces thryoxine, which stimulates/maintains metabolism. u_3 Pineal Gland Produces melatonin which regulates the circadian rhythm. u_3 Brain Stem Oldest part of the brain, responsible for basic life functions, relays sensory info to cerebrum. u_3 Pons Coordinates voluntary movement and regulates consciousness. u_3 Medulla Oblongata Regulates heartbeat/breathing. u_3 Reticular Formation Network of neurons that connects the spinal chord to thalamus. Responsible for habituation and regulates sleep/alertness. u_3 Thalamus THE THALAMUS IS THE RELAY CENTER FOR ALL SENSORY INFORMATION, EXCEPT SMELL!! u_3 Hypothalamus Regulates hunger, thirst, body temp, sexual behavior. In charge of the endocrine system. u_3 Amygdala Helps process emotions, influences aggression and fear. u_3 Hippocampus Part of the temporal lobe, responsible for encoding short-term memories into long-term ones. u_3 Cerebellum "The ""little brain"" that coordinates voluntary muscle movement and stores procedural memories." u_3 Cerebral Cortex The outer layer of gray matter responsible for higher brain functions (sensation, thought, muscle movement, etc.) u_3 Basal Ganglia Connects the thalamus to the cerebellum to regulate movement, balance, eye movement, and posture. u_3 Olfactory Bulb Relays smell to olfactory cortex. u_3 Frontal Lobe Enables judgement, planning. u_3 Phineas Gage Metal rod shot through frontal lobe, survived. u_3 Motor Cortex Sends messages to muscles and glands to move. u_3 Broca's Area (language is on the left) In Frontal Lobe, responsible for speech articulation. If it is damaged, speech is slurred. u_3 Parietal Lobe Associated with math and spacial reasoning. u_3 Somatosensory Cortex Responsible for recieving touch/pain/temperature info (somatosensation.) u_3 Angular Gyrus Responsible for reading. Partially in parietal and temporal lobes. u_3 Supramarginal Gyrus Understanding what we read. u_3 Occipital Lobe Contains visual cortex where vision is processed. u_3 Temporal Lobe Where hearing is processed, contains auditory cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala. u_3 Wernicke's Area Speech comprehension, forming comprehensive sentences. u_3 Fusiform Gyrus Allows for facial recognition. u_3 Corpus Callosum Bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres of the brain. u_3 Cerebral Laterialization Each half of the brain controls the opposite half of the body. u_3 Left Brain Associations Academic: Language, math, science, logic. u_3 Right Brain Associations Creative: spacial reasoning, art, music, imagination. u_3 Sperry and Gazzaniga Completed split-brain surgery (lesioned corpus callosum.)  u_3 Dual Processing Information processed on seperate conscious and unconscious tracks. u_3 Selective Attention Focusing conscious on a particular stimulus. u_3 Selective Inattention Blind to most of visual stimuli. u_3 Inattentional Blindness Failing to see visible things because we aren't paying attention. u_3 Change Blind/Deafness Failing to notice change in environment. u_3 Serial Processing Processing one piece of information at a time. u_3 Parallel Processing Processing many pieces of info at once. u_3 Circadian Rhythm Our biological clock. u_3 Sleep Inertia Groggy sennsation when you're sleep deprived. u_3 Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Region above the optic chiasm that controls the circadian rhythm, causes pineal gland to secrete melotonin. u_3 Sleep Cycle 90 mins. 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 2, REM, 2, REM, ... u_3 Beta Waves Awake and Alert u_3 Alpha Waves Awake but drowsy, relaxed. u_3 Theta Waves Stage 1. u_3 Hypnagogic Hallucinations Feeling of falling, causes a myoclonic jerk when you wake up. u_3 Sleep Spindles Stage 2, indicates you're leaving/entering REM. Body temp/breathing slow down. u_3 Delta Waves "Stages 3/4, ""slow wave"" sleep." u_3 Night Terrors, Bed Wetting, Sleep Walking At the end of stage 4, mostly between children between 4 and 12. u_3 NREM Stages 1-4 u_3 REM "Rapid Eye Movement sleep or ""paradoxical sleep"" because you're paralyzed. Mind is very active, most vivid dreams." u_3 Michel Jouvet "Coined the term ""paradoxical sleep"" when studying cats." u_3 William Dement First to figure out that dreams happen in REM. u_3 Insomnia Recurring problem in falling/staying asleep. Treated with anti-anxiety meds + therapy. u_3 Narcolepsy Randomly go straight into REM. Treated with stimulants. u_3 Saturday Night Paralysis (Palsy) Intoxicated person passes out and causes nerve damage. u_3 REM Behavior Disorder Not paralyzed in REM. Treated with benzos. u_3 Bruxism Teeth grinding, most common in women. Treated with a nightguard. u_3 Why we sleep It protects us, restores brain tissue, makes memories, fuels creativity, and helps us grow. u_3 Psychoanalytic Theory (Dreams) Dreams reveal a lot about memories that we've repressed. u_3 Manifest Content Events from daily lives in dreams (most of the dream.) u_3 Latent Content Hidden messages in dreams. u_3 Other Reasons why we Dream They (REM) help process information, preserve neural pathways, make sense of neural static, and help w/ cognitive development. u_3 Activiation-Synthesis Theory Dreams are just trying to make sense of stimuli. u_3 Social Influence Theory of Hypnosis Hypnotic subjects are role-playing and get caught up in the role. u_3 Dissociation Theory Conscious is split between levels and allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously. u_3 Alcohol Depressant, inhibits nervous system/REM/memory/cell regrowth. Increases GABA in short term, alcoholics kill off GABA and increase Glutamate. u_3 Barbituates Tranquilizers, mostly replaced by benzos. u_3 Opiates Pretend to be endorphins, slow down nervous system. u_3 Methadone Synthetic opium used as a painkiller and treatment for opiate addiction. u_3 Caffeine Stimulant, binds to adenosine receptors. u_3 Nicotine Releases epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, speeds up nervous system. u_3 Meth Increases dopamine production (over time, stops it.) u_3 Cocaine Rush of dopamine, serotonin, rorepinephrine, depletes supply (causes a crash.) u_3 Ecstasy (MDMA) Stimulant + mild hallucinogen, releases serotonin + dopamine and blocks their reuptake. u_3 LSD Hallucinogen, releases and blocks the reuptake of serotonin. Agonist. u_3 PCP Releases + blocks reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. u_3 Marijuana Fat soluable, Hallucinogen, binds to cannibinoid receptors all around body. Helps with nausea but impacts memory. u_3 Sensation The process where sensory receptors and the nervous system percieve stimuli. u_4 Perception The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events u_4 Top Down Processing Perception first, followed by sensation. u_4 Bottom Up Processing Starts with sensory, eventually perception. u_4 Psychophysics The study of the relationship between stimuli and the sensations/perceptinos elicited by the stimuli. u_4 Absolute Threshold Theory Minimum stimulatino needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. u_4 Signal Detection Theory Assumes no absolute threshold, detection depends on experience/expectations/motivation/level of fatigue. u_4 Sensation The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system recieve stimuli. u_4 Perception The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information. u_4 Top-Down Processing First preception, then sensation. u_4 Bottom-Up Processing First sensation, then perception. u_4 Psychophysics The scientific study of the relationship between stimuli and sensations/perceptions evoked by said stimuli. u_4 Absolute Threshold Minimum stimulation to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. u_4 Signal Detection Theory No absolute threshold, detection depends on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. u_4 Subliminal Messages Messages underneath the threshold. u_4 Difference Threshold/Just Noticable Difference (JND) Minimum difference between 2 stimuli for detection 50% of the time. u_4 Weber's Law In order to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percent. u_4 Sensory/Neural Adaptation Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. u_4 Habituation You habituate to some sensations, not neural adaptation but reticular formation filtering out information. u_4 Gestalt Psychology Psychological perspective: our brains like to organize stimuli by...
Proximity, Similar color, Similar size, Common fate, Good Continuation, Closure, Element connectedness u_4 Figure-Ground Relationship We try to perceive objects as distinct from background based on brightness, light, shading, etc. u_4 Bionocular Cues 2 eyes - Retinal Disparity, Convergence u_4 Retinal Disparity The greater the difference between views in each eye, the greater the distance. u_4 Convergence The angle that eyes converge on a point determines how far away it is. u_4 Monocular Cues Relative size, Linear Perspective, Interposition, Relative Clarity, Texture Gradient, Relative Height, Relative Motion, Light and Shadow u_4 Relative Size Distant objects are smaller. u_4 Linear Perspective Parallel lines converge in the distance. u_4 Interposition Objects blocked from view percieved as farther. u_4 Relative Clarity Hazier objects are more distant u_4 Texture Gradient Farther objects seem smaller and densely packed. u_4 Relative Height Vertical dimensions seem longer than horizontal dimensions (ex. tables, st louis arch) u_4 Relative Motion Stable object appear to move with us. u_4 Light and Shadow Dimmer objects appear farther because nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes. u_4 Stroboscopic Movement A rapid series of slightly varying images give the illusion of motion (video) u_4 Phi Phenomenon Afterimage illusion when two or more lights blink on and off (pink circles) u_4 Shape Constancy We percieve familiar objects as the same, even when looking at it from a different angle. u_4 Size Constancy Percieving objects as having a constant size even though our distance varies (cars on the road) u_4 Color Constancy We percieve objects as having constant color, even when the illumination changes. u_4 Perceptual Adaptation Adjusting to a artificially altered/lost sense (blind people) u_4 Perceptual Set Being disposed to perceive one thing over another. u_4 Context Effect The context (what is around us) influences perception. (ex. tall person makes normal person look small) u_4 Cornea Outer layer of the eye: protects and bends light u_4 Iris Ring of muscle that controls the size of the pupil u_4 Pupil Opening in center of eye where light enters u_4 Lens Transparent structure behind pupil that changes chape to focus images on retina u_4 Retina Inner surface of eye, contains rods/cones u_4 Rods/Cones Start transduction, transmit to bipolar and then ganglion, then the optic nerve u_4 Fovea Spot on retina where the image is formed u_4 Blind spot place where we can't see because it's where the ganglion cells merge into the optic nerve u_4 Optic Nerve Nerve that carries impulses from eye to optic chiasm to thalamus, visual cortex u_4 Near/Farsighted (myopia/hyperopia) Image forms in front or behind retina so you can't see it in focus u_4 Astigmatism Light from lens splits, caused by irregularly shaped cornea/lens u_4 Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory Retina has 3 color receptors: RGB u_4 Opponent Processing Theory Opposing retinal processes enable color vision because some cells are stimulated by one color or inhibited by another u_4 Colorblindness Deficiency in color receptors in cones/bipolar/ganglion u_4 Pinna Outer ear u_4 Tympanic Membrane Eardrum, vibrates and sends waves to ossicles u_4 Ossicles Hammer, anvil, stirrup (in order) transfer waves from eardrum to cochlea u_4 Cochlea When the stirrup hits the oval window, it causes fluid to move basilar membrane (hairs) that transduce waves to neural signals. u_4 Auditory Nerve Gets signals from basilar membrane and takes them to the thalamus and eventually to the auditory cortex. u_4 Doppler Effect Perceived change in frequency of a sound that is moving relative to observer. u_4 Place Theory Different sound waves trigger different places on the cochlear membrane, making different pitches u_4 Frequency Theory We hear different pitches based on the frequency of the cochlea vibrating. u_4 Sensorineural Hearing Loss Damage to basilar membrane u_4 Conduction Hearing Loss Damage to tympanic membrane/ossicles u_4 5 Tastes Bitter, sweet, salty, sour, umami u_4 Supertasters More fungiform papillae u_4 Olfaction Odor molecules enter nose and are passed to olfactory bulb. NO THALAMUS. u_4 Gate Control Theory "Spinal chord has a ""gate"" that controls pain. It's opened by pain signals (small fibers) and closed by info from large fibers (touch/pressure) or the brain." u_4 Biological Factors that Influence Pain More endorphins = less pain u_4 Psychological Factors that Influence Pain Distraction = less pain, we only remember the peak and end of the pain u_4 Sociocultural Factors that Influence Pain Reactions to pain are learned, empathy for pain makes us feel pain u_4 Kinesthetic Sense Sense of position and movement of body parts u_4 Vestibular Sense Sense of balance/equilubrium. Regulated by the semi-circular canals in ears. u_4 Classical Conditioning A learned involuntary response u_5 Operant Conditioning Voluntarily learning through rewards and punishments. u_5 Observational Learning Learning by modeling others' behavior. u_5 Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Stimulus that naturally causes a UR. u_5 Unconditioned Response (UR) Naturally occurring response to US. u_5 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Originally neutral stimulus that becomes associated with US to trigger a CR. u_5 Conditioned Response (CR) Learned response to CS. u_5 Aquisition The initial stage in classical conditioning where the CS needs to come before the US. u_5 Higer Order/Secondary Conditioning New neutral stimulus is paired with the CS. u_5 Extinction Diminishing of CR when UR doesn't follow CS. u_5 Spontaneous Recovery Reappearance of CR after an elapsed period of time after extinction. u_5 Generalization Tendency for a CR to happen with a similar stimulus to the CS. u_5 Discrimination (Classical Conditioning) Ability to distinguish between the CS and a stimuli that doesn't signal it. u_5 Delayed Conditioning When US has to follow right after the CS. u_5 Trace Conditioning When the US is presented *well* after the CS. Discovered by John Garcia. u_5 Simultaneous Conditioning CS and US are presented at the same time. Isn't effective because the animal is distracted by the US. u_5 Backward Conditioning US is presented before the CS. Doesn't work because the animal is distracted by the US. u_5 Robert Rescorla Proved that cognition is involved in learning. u_5 Contiguity Model The US has to come after the CS for learning. When repeated, the association gains strength. u_5 Contingency Model Conditioning is contingent on the congnitive processing of the event and pairings of CS and US. u_5 The Law of Effect Discovered by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by good things become more likely (and vice versa) u_5 Shaping Where reinforcers (punishment, rewards) guide behavior toward desired behavior. u_5 Positive Reinforcement Adding something good. u_5 Negative Reinforcement Taking away something bad. u_5 Primary/Unconditioned Reinforcer Innately reinforcing stimuli, ex. getting food when hungry. u_5 Conditioned/Secondary Reinforcer The food/treats/etc used to condition. u_5 Positive Punishment Adding something bad. u_5 Negative Punishment Removing something good. u_5 Drawbacks of Punishment Causes suppression (not forgetting), discrimination, fear, and may increase aggressiveness. u_5 Delayed Reinforcement/Gratification Reinforcement given after a delay. u_5 Immediate Reinforcement/Gratification Reinforcement happens immediately. u_5 Continuous Reinforcement Reinforcing every time the response occurs. Leads to Overjustification Effect. u_5 Overjustification Effect When rewards lose value because they are given too often. u_5 Partial Reinforcement Reinforcing a response part of the time. u_5 Fixed Ratio Schedule Reinforces the response after a vertain number of responses. Good for learning, will fade. u_5 Variable Ratio Schedule Reinforces response after an unpredictable number of responses. Good for maintaining behavior. u_5 Ratio Schedules Most effective, variable ratio is the best. u_5 Latent Learning Learning occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Coined by Edward Tolman. u_5 Insight Learning Answer suddenly comes to you without reward/punishment. u_5 Extrinsic Motivation Perferming a behavior to get a reward or avoid a punishment. (External motivator) u_5 Intrinsic Motivation Done for the sake of the performer of the behavior. u_5 Modeling Learning by observing others. u_5 Mirror Neurons Frontal lobe neurons that allow for imitation, empathy, and theory of mind (judging people's mental state).  u_5 Tip of the Tongue Phenomena Retrieval only produces parts of a complete response. u_5 Recall Retrieving information learned earlier with NO cues. u_5 Recognition Identifiying items previously learned with cues (ex. multiple choice) u_5 Sensory Memory Extremely brief recording of sensory information. u_5 Iconic Memory A brief, photographic subset of sensory memory. u_5 Echoic Memory Brief recall of the last 5-6 words said, a type of sensory memory. u_5 Working/Short-Term Memory Holds items that you are paying attention to from the sensory memory. Can only remember ~7 things. u_5 Encoding Moving short-term memories to long-term memories. Usually done through rehearsal. u_5 Long-Term Memory Relatively permanent storage of memories. u_5 Declarative/Explicit Memory Memory of facts, includes semantic and episodic. u_5 Semantic Memory A type of explicit memory, holds word meanings and facts. u_5 Episodic Memory A type of Explicit memory, holds events from your life. Retrospective = past memories, Prospective = things you have to remember to do. u_5 Procedural/Implicit Memory Automatically remember things, stored in the Cerebellum. u_5 Hermann Ebbinghaus Discovered the Spacing Effect by trying to memorize a list of nonsense syllables. u_5 Spacing Effect Information is retained better when rehearsal is spread out. (Distributed practice) (cramming is bad lol) u_5 Serial Position Effect Tendency to recall the last and first items on a list. u_5 Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning, such as word meanings. u_5 Self Reference Effect We remember things that pertain to ourselves better. u_5 Shallow Processing When we only take in superficial sensory information such as lines and curves. Leads to rapid decay. u_5 Deep Processing Attaching meaning to information and creating associations between new memories and old ones. u_5 Method of Loci Creating a mental space and placing objects in it. u_5 Peg Word Linking a word to remember with a number u_5 Chunking Organizing items into manageable units u_5 Sensory Memory Storage Iconic and Echoic memory storage, discovered by George Sperling. u_5 Long Term Potentiation (LTP) Increase in Synapse's efficiency when learning happens through releasing Serotonin. u_5 Biology of Memories Stressful situations cause more glucose in the neurons, leading to more vivid memories. u_5 Flashbulb Memories Very clear memories of a significant moment. u_5 Anterograde Amnesia Inability to remember new info, but still remembering info from before accident. u_5 Retrograde Amnesia Being able to recall memories from after the accident, but not before. u_5 State Dependent Memory You may remember something better if you get in the same mental state. u_5 Mood Congruent Memory We recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood. u_5 7 Sins of Memory Absent Mindedness, Blocking, Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, Persistence u_5 Transience Storage decay over time u_5 Blocking Inability to retrieve stored information u_5 Positive Transfer Knowing one thing helps with another (ex. spanish makes other romance languages easier to learn) u_5 Proactive Interference Information learned previously interferes with recalling new info (ex. i keep using spanish words when learning italian) u_5 Misattribution Confusing the source of info (ex. someone tells you something and you think you were there) u_5 Theories for Motivation Instinct Theory, Drive-Reduction theory, Incentive Theory, Arousal Theory, and Hiearchy of Needs Instinct Theory We're motivated by instincts (complex unmotivated behaviors) that are fixed throughout a species. DOESN'T WORK! Drive Reduction Theory Psychological/biological state disrupts homeostasis and pushes an organism to return to it. Problem: motivation can happen without a drive. Incentive Theory A desire for external rewards pulls you. Self Efficacy Belief in your ability to succeed in a certain situation. Arousal Theory We are driven to maintain certain levels of arousal. Yerkes-Dodson Law Part of arousal theory: states that performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Humanistic Perspective) Goal: self-actualization (reach full potential), self-transcendance (meaning + identity beyond the self) Lateral Hypothalamus Hunger center Ventromedial Hypothalamus Satiation center Ghrelin Hunger arousing hormone (produced in stomach, regulated by circadian rhythm) Obestatin Hunger-supressing hormone, produced in stomach. Set Point "Ideal weight, ""weight thermostat""" Basal Metabolic Rate The rate of food metabolization. Anorexia Nervosa Delusions you are fat, despite being emaciated. Bulimia Nervosa Recurrent binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors. Binge Eating Disorder Binge eating followed by guilt/disgust, no purging/fasting/excessive exercise. Estrogen Responsible for growth of female sex organs. Testosterone Stimulates growth of male sex organs in fetus. William Masters/Virginia Johnson Study Studied 700 men and women and their secual response cycle. Sexual Response Cycle Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution, (refractory for men only) Alfred Kinsey Founded sexology, the study of sexual interests, behavior, and function. Affiliation Motive Motivation to belong. Ostracism/social exclusion is hurtful. David McClelland Identified Achievement Motivation. Achievement Motivation Desire for significant accomplishment for mastery of skills, control, or high standards. Tested with the TAT. TAT Thematic Apperception Test, gives ambiguous picture and asks you to create a story. Measures need for achievement, affiliation, and power. Need for Affiliation Need to get along with others and feel accepted. Need for Power 2 types: personal (high need for directing others), institutional (high need for organizing the efforts of others to further the goals of an organization) Approach-Approach Conflicts Two positive options. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts Two negative options. Approach-Avoidance Conflicts The one option has both positive and negative. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict Several options that are both positive and negative each. Emotions A response of the whole organism. James-Lange Theory First stiumulus, then response, then emotion. Cannon-Bard Theory Stimulus, then response and emotion at the same time. Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory Stimulus, response, cognition, then emotion. Schachter/Singer Epinephrine Trial Showed spillover effect. Spillover Effect An aroused state can be experienced as one emotion or another. Cognitive Appraisal Theory Emotional experience depends on cognition of response. Primary Appraisal Assessing potential consequences. Secondary Appraisal Deciding what to do. Opponent Processing Theory (emotions) Richard Solomon, when we experience an emotion like fear, pleasure is suppressed. Paul Ekman Facial expressions are universal/biological, not cultural. Display Rules Norms that define when you can and can't display emotion. Facial Feedback Effect Faking emotions (similing, frowning) can influence the way you feel. Adaptation Level Phenomena Tendency to treat new things as a neutral level after a while. Relative Deprivation Perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom they compare themselves. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Hans Selye, Stages of stress are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Problem Focused Coping Alleviating stress by going to the source. Emotional Focused Coping Alleviating stress by ignoring the stressor and dealing with the emotional reaction. Perceived Control Stress is worse if you think you don't have an external locus of control. Personality Characteristic pattern of thinking/feeling/acting. Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality Freud, mainly considered the unconscious mind and how things are repressed. Id Unconscious striving to satisfy basic aggressive and sexual needs. Superego Conscience, strives for perfection. Ego Conscious energy that mediates id and superego. Defense Mechanisms What the ego uses to handle conflict between the id and superego. Denial Claiming something that is true to be false. Displacement Redirecting emotions to a substitute. Intellectualization Taking an objective viewpoint. Projection Attributing your own uncomfortable feelings to others. (ex. when you lose an argument, you call the other person stupid when, in fact, you were stupid) Rationalization Creating false, but credible justifications. Reaction Formation Overacting in the opposite way (like extreme love turns into hate). Regression Acting like a child. Repression Pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the unconscious. Sublimation Redirecting socially wrong urges into socially acceptable options. Psychoanalysis Freud's method of treating personality disorders using free association. Freudian Slips Slips of tongue that Freud thought could reveal unconscious thoughts. Neo-Freudians Accept id, ego, superego, the unconscious, and defense mechanisms, but not the rest. Alfred Adler Neofreudian, researched Inferiority Complexes and birth order. Birth Order Adler shows it can influence personality, and argued it led to sibling rivalry. Karen Horney Didn't like penis envy, so she made... womb envy. Carl Jung Agreed with Freud's dream analysis, but not his partial definition of the unconscious. Jung's Archetypes (4 most common) The Shadow, The Anima/Animus, The Self, and The Persona The Shadow Archetype Unconscious desires, things we repress.